Population growth in Istanbul has led to a vertical and horizontal expansion of the city, giving rise to a significant number of new settlements constructed on open spaces, agricultural areas, water basins and forests.1 In particular, projects of different magnitude, planned and implemented over the last ten years, have started to manifest their negative effects upon urban nature and identity.
Many factors enrich urban nature and especially its biological diversity in Istanbul, such as its position as a bridge between the European and Anatolian continents, the connection between the Black Sea, the Sea of Marmara, and the Bosphorous, and the urban climate and geological structure. One of the most globally important bird migration routes passes through Istanbul. There is a considerable number of migratory birds soaring over the Bosphorous. All this richness in the diversity of living spaces have so far been protected together with all these features, making it possible for many plant and animal species to continue their lives.
There are approximately 2500 flowering plants and ferns in the natural flora of Istanbul. For example, in Netherlands, a country eight times larger than Istanbul with respect to its surface area, there are 1600 plant species, and 1850 plant species in England, a country forty-seven times larger than Istanbul. Again, the number of plant species in Poland, a country approximately sixty times larger than Istanbul, is nearly the same as that of Istanbul.2 Seven of Turkey’s Important Plant Areas (IPA) are located within the provincial borders of Istanbul.3 Istanbul hosts one fourth of the 10,000 plant species located overall in Turkey.
A look at Istanbul’s faunistic diversity will show dramatic results. For example, a large proportion of the wildlife species in Turkey live in Istanbul: 125 of 405 identified butterfly species; 35 of 157 frog and reptile species, 328 of 481 bird species, and 38 of 149 mammalian species live in Istanbul.1, 4 It is obviously easy to have a glimpse of the richness of Istanbul’s biological diversity by looking at all these comparions. Moreover, eleven of Turkey’s Important Natural Areas (TIN) are located within Istanbul.5
Birds’ migration routes in Istanbul
Istanbul is one of the important bird migration routes within the Western Palearctic region. This route is used by storks, raptors and passeriformes in spring and fall, and by water birds in winter.
According to scientific studies carried out in Istanbul, an approximate number of 400,000 storks and 200,000 raptors migrate in spring and fall; tens of thousands of passeriformes, and thousands of water bird species and charadriiformes migrate in different seasons.6, 7 Soaring birds migrate between March and May in spring, and between August and October in fall. The spring migration of soaring birds intensifies in northern Istanbul. In fall migrations, storks often pass through the Sea of Marmara over Büyükçekmece, Küçükçekmece, Yeşilköy, Zeytinburnu, Eminönü and the Princes’ Islands.
The Effects on Wild Life by Mega Projects Like The Third Bridge, the Third airport and Channel Istanbul
It is clear that urban development in our country has tended to be focusued on highway-centered growth. 1 With the construction of the third bridge, the building of the Marmara motorway will promote urban development and the population of Istanbul will increase by almost a third. Alhough it is expected that the third bridge will relieve traffic congestion, it will also bring its own congestion. The location of the third bridge and the Northern Marmara motorway route have been specified purely on political grounds, not according to scientific study. At a time when the bridge construction is nearing completion and there is ongoing the planning of viaducts and green-ecological bridges on the motorway route, no attention is being paid to expert opinions. Many newspapers reported that bird migration was used as an excuse for the change in the route before a comprehensive public statement about the actual motorway route was made. If bird migrations had been taken into consideration, these interrelated projects should not have been planned and carried out in the first place.
Urban population growth and spatial expansion have a significant effect on wild life spaces, espeically road construction. These effects on wild life have short and long-term impacts.8, 9 Among the short-term effects, one can point out to psychological effects (changes in pulse, stress levels and hormones for wild life species), diseases, displacement, forced migration and unrest. And as for long term effects, one can count a rise in the mortality rate, a decrease in birth rate, decreases in species density, imbalances in species distribution, and changes in species diversity and extinction.
During the construction of the bridge and preparatory work for the motorway on the route over which link roads are planned to pass, more than one million trees have been cut down. These trees are home to many bird and mammalian species. Approximately 40 local and 30 summer migrant bird species, i.e. 70 bird species in total, and an approximate number of 20 mammalian species living there and breeding in the same region every year have thus lost their living spaces. The motorway space of approximately 260 hectares, extending from the Bosphorous to the D020 highway (D010-01 until 2006) from around the Belgrade Forest, will directly lose their status as wild life areas. A look at the road construction carried out in the motorway area will show that road widths of 100 meters have sometimes expanded to 200 meters. Calculations have been made about the per hectare intensity of birds living in the Belgrade Forest, which is very close to the project area. 10 According to this calculation, four members of the Fringillidae family living here per hectare will not be able to breed in this area now transformed into a road and 780 great tits will not be able to nest here. If one re-configures this calculation for the 70 species of passeriformes living within the project area, it will be understood that ten thousands of passeriformes are going to lose their right to live and nest over the area taken over by the road. Resting and lodging places of migrant birds are also being destroyed. As migrant birds tend to rest in stable areas, they will not be able to use the area taken over and affected by the road. Storks, in particular, rest at night in trees located in forests with a certain density.
Many wild life species are disturbed by the bridge and road construction work. Some of these species have been displaced. At different times in October of 2013, two families of wild boars reported in the news, a herd of nearly 20 members, swam across the Bosphorous, thus passing from the European side of the city to the Anatolian side. The fate of the remaining families, a herd of nearly 80 members staying in the Rumelifeneri wild life development site, is yet unknown. In 2015, a series of young wild boars swam across the Bosphorous to land in Tarabya and Bebek, reaching the city through the streams flowing into the Bosphorous. The work carried out in these projects also impinges upon breeding periods and numbers of animals bred, and often causes miscarriages.
Bridges and highways disintegrate and decrease the number of wild life habitats. Every space occupied by a wild life species (which means its habitat) has a carrying capacity. A habitat is a limited place, so the number of potential animals is limited with the habitat’s carrying capacity. The populations of wild life species are determined by their carrying capacity, which is determined in turn by the size of their habitat. Carrying capacity is directly reduced as habitats are disintegrated and narrowed due to bridges and highways. And this, of course, shrinks the populations of these species.1
The completion of bridges and highways will pave the way for traffic congestion in this region and the pollutants exuded from vehicles will continue to threaten wild life. Similarly, noise pollution will rise on the sides of the highway, which will again disturb wild animals. Worst of all, territorial wild animals will be prevented from passing through road routes after the completion of highways. In this living space, delimited by the Bosphorous, the city and now with the highway, wild animals will have inadequate supply of food, which will drastically reduce their numbers.1 In addition, there will be an increase in the relationship between relatives, which will increasingly reduce the number of healthy populations. Genetic pollution and disease factors will have a negative impact on these populations every passing day. Rising traffic congestion on linking roads will not only impact the number of habitats of wild animals but also increase the risk of them being the victims of traffic accidents while passing through the roads. Accidents will surely damage wild animals and lead to the loss of their lives.
As for the Third airport project area, 81% of the area is composed of forests, 9% of lakes, and 4% of pastures, dry farming land and brushwood. 94% of the project area is a suitable living space for birds. Moreover, this area is located on the bird migration route. Among soaring birds, more than three thousand storks and more than one thousand raptors use this area in spring, and approximately two 200,000 birds in fall.6 Additionally, ten thousands of water birds, charadriiformes and gulls, and hundred of thousands passeriformes fly over this area during both their migration and relocation. When the third airport project was first brought to the agenda, it was considered to be the second biggest airport of Europe; however, public statements have been made to state that it is now planned to be the biggest airport in the world. The Atatürk Airport, situated in the south of Istanbul, is open to aviation accidents during the fall migration season; and considering the air traffic and the numerical frequency of soaring birds, it is more than clear that the third airport, situated in the north of Istanbul, will harbor great risks for aviation accidents during the spring migration season. If only our desire to achieve the greatest mega projects could transform into a desire to achieve the greatest protection of nature.
The construction of the third airport has similiary initiated the annihilation process of the living spaces of wild animals. And it is crystal clear that the continuation of this construction will bring about the wholesale destruction of these spaces. Forests, agricultural lands and ponds, all falling under the project area, will be removed and transformed into an airport. The local and migrants birds living in the forest and agricultural lands and water birds living in ponds will thus be deprived of their living spaces. The places where migrants birds feel secure to have a rest or lodge on their route will be cleared away to be made into an airport. These birds will also be forced to migrate to far away areas without having any rest or stopover. Migrant birds will experience nutrition and resting difficulties during their migration. The living spaces of mammalian animals will also disappear. Terkos Lake is a significant living space for water birds. Tens of thousands of duck and goose spend the winter here, and thousands of gulls on the sea shore will not only pose a threat for aviation accidents, but they will also be the victim of accidents. Bird migrations that have been going on for thousands of years will continue unabated after the establishment of the airport. The period when soaring birds fly most frequently during spring and fall will increase the risk of aviation accidents. Approximately speaking, 400,000 storks and 200,000 raptors pass through northern Istanbul during their migration. The body mass of these birds varies between three to five kilograms, so it is obvious that they will pose a great threat to planes as these birds tend to move together. Similarly, water birds change their places more often in winter and thus migrate depending on the weather. The same risk is also valid for these kinds of birds. All birds using this area, soaring migrant birds in particular, are under the protection of the Bern Convention. Those birds with very limited numberds will face the threat of extinction due to risks such as aviation accidents.
Bird migration can be defined as the population movement regularly repeated between two geographical regions. Currently observed migration movements have been shaped with the retreat of glaciers at the end of the last glacial epoch.11 Birds have, for thousands of years, formed their own routes and their orientation capacity is dependent upon factors such as their own rhythms, their genetic transmission, the use of sun compass and the magnetic field. Hence, it will not be possible for them to change their routes after the establishment of the airport. They will feel uneasy while flying over the airport, trying to pass over here as soon as possible. In short, some of their behaviours will undoubtedly change while flying over the airport.
As for the Channel Istanbul Project, it separates the European side of Istanbul from the Thrace, thus transforming it into a veritable island surrounded by water. Is the implementation of the channel project based on scientific fact? This isolation would pose a threat for all animals living within this territory. From a long-term perspective, territorial biodiversity will thus be confined to a restricted area and the pressure upon this animal diversity will only increase as the city constantly expands. The impact of this pressure will increase incrementally as the area in question decreases. This project will have a detractive effect primarily upon wild life and biological diversity. The population of animals living within this territory will decrease in time. During this process, many species will go extinct over time. Opportunities will rise for those animal species capable of adapting to urban life. The breakdown and reconfiguration of the natural balance will last a long time and there will be no chance of survival for many species. The reduction of biological diversity within a large area means the reduction of all groups of living things.
Istanbul has a high degree of biological diversity. This is so not only for plants but also for animals. One-fourth of all animal species identified in Turkey is located within Istanbul. The importance of this richness is beyond dispute. Istanbul is now encircled by mega projects and there are many other mega projects about which we know nothing. The city’s nature is on the brink of dissolution due to these projects. The greatest problem of wild life in Turkey is the disruption of its living spaces. The destruction of nature leaves irreversible effects on developing countries. It is only when nature or natural living creatures are lost that some measures—or the pretenses of measures—are taken. Protection projects, however, are more costly in terms of lost space and lost lives. The only solution for wild life is the complete cessation of these projects. Unfortunately, it seems that we will not be able to appreciate the value of natural riches before destroying them all.
1 Arslangündoğdu, Z. 2014. “Istanbul’daki Nüfus Artışı ve Genişlemenin Yaban Hayatı Üzerine Etkisi ve Çözüm Önerileri” (Ed.: Akkemik, Ü., Istanbul Ormanlarının Sorunları ve Çözüm Önerileri). Türkiye Ormancılar Derneği, Marmara Şubesi Yayınları No: 03, 195-208, Istanbul.
2 Avcı, M., 2014. “Kentsel, Biyolojik Çeşitlilik Açısından Istanbul” (ed.: Akkemik, Ü., Istanbul Ormanlarının Sorunları ve Çözüm Önerileri). Türkiye Ormancılar Derneği, Marmara Şubesi Yayınları No: 03, 85-124, Istanbul.
3 Özhatay, N., Byfield, A. and Atay, S., 2005. Türkiye’nin 122 Önemli Bitki Alanı. WWF Türkiye (Doğal Hayatı Koruma Vakfı), Istanbul.
4 Bacak, B., Özkoç, Ö. Ü., Bilgin, S. ve Beşkardeş, V., 2015. Istanbul Kuşları. T.C. Orman ve Su İşleri Bakanlığı, I. Bölge Müdürlüğü, Istanbul, 302 pages., ISBN: 978-605-4610-80-8.
5 Eken, G., Bozdoğan, M., İsfendiyaroğlu, S., Kılıç, D.T., Lise, Y., 2006. Türkiye’nin Önemli Doğa Alanları. Doğa Derneği, Ankara, ISBN: 978-975-9801-3-1.
6 Arslangündoğdu, Z., Dalyan, C., Bacak, E., Yardım, Ü., Gezgin, C., Beşkardeş, V., 2011. “Spring Migration of the White Stork, Ciconia ciconia, and the Black Stork, Ciconia nigra, over the Bosphorus”. Zoology in the Middle East 53: 7 -13.
7 Arslangündoğdu Z., 2014. “Istanbul’da Yapılması Planlanan Projelerin Kuş Göç Yolları Üzerindeki Etkileri” (ed.: Gülersoy, N.Z., Mutlu, Ö.E., Gökmen, E.Y., Istanbul’un Geleceğini Etkileyecek Üç Proje (3. Köprü – 3. Havalimanı – Kanal Istanbul). TEMA Vakfı, 76-84, Istanbul.
8 Jackson, S. D., Griffin, C. R., 2000. A Strategy for Mitigating Highway Impacts on Wildlife (In: Messmer, T. A. and West, B. (ed.) Wildlife and Highways: Seeking Solutions to an Ecological and Socio-economic Dilemma. The Wildlife Society.
9 Bangs, E. E., Spraker, T. H., Bailey, T. N., Berns, V. D., 1982. “Effects of Increased Human Populations on Wildlife Resources of the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska.” In: Sabol, K., Transactions of the Forty-Seventh North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference Washington), US Fish and Wildlife Publications, 36.
10 Arslangündoğdu, Z., 2005. Istanbul-Belgrad Ormanı’nın Ornitofaunası Üzerinde Araştırmalar. İ.Ü. Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, PhD Thesis, Istanbul, XIII+234 pages. (Unpublished).
11 Erciyas, K., 2004. Kuşlarda Göç ve Oriyantasyon. OMÜ Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, MA Thesis, Samsun, 23 pages. (Unpublished).